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Santrock, J. Therefore, promotion of higher cognitive development within the career counseling setting could potentially assist clients in utilizing multiple alternatives and bringing a more differentiated sense of self into the career decision process, while allowing for more effective cop- ing skills regarding extraneous factors such as environmental stress.
Developmental counseling approaches seem particularly relevant for reentry dual career women as they make complex decisions involving career paths and the management of responsibilities within their family and social contexts.
As clients in counseling clarify the mean- ing of their experience through a focus on cognitive structures, they enhance the capacity to solve their own problems Hayes, Kegan borrows the notion of the holding environment from object relations theory and applies it to the counseling setting by suggesting that counselors provide a safe, nur- turing place for the client to make a shift into the disequilibrium that promotes development to higher cognitive stages.
The dissonance that can occur with significant new role taking experiences, such as beginning a new ca- reer, necessitates opportunities for adequate reflection in order for individuals to effectively integrate their new experience into evolving and more complex cognitive structures.
For example, journal writing or guided discussions of responses to conflict intrinsic to the dual re- sponsibilities of family, marriage, and job could assist women identi- fying and making sense of their own thinking and belief frameworks for decision making.
This approach extends the concepts of assessment and intervention to include an emphasis on the impact of social, politi- cal, and economic realities on women and their families and the various systems in which women hold membership including family, social groups, church affiliations, and other significant relationships.
Addressing sex, gender and race is neces- sary to create a context for understanding behavior and linking it to the larger culture, thus enhancing multiple perspective taking. Gilligan proposed two patterns of development of moral reason- ing, one more characteristic of women and the other more charac- teristic of men, although both patterns can coexist in both genders.
These two structures of moral reasoning produce different constructions of moral issues and justifications for decisions. Therefore, it is possible that women may make decisions based on relationship and con- nectedness i.
The absence of a supportive social climate for a humane integration of family and work responsibilities makes a decision to reenter the workforce espe- cially problematic for many women. The career counselor who is sen- sitive to this possible phenomenon can more effectively assist the cli- ent in processing and working through this potential conflict during the career counseling process.
Cognitive-Developmental Approaches to Assessment in Career Counseling Knefelkamp, Widick, and Stroad proposed a framework within which to assess and promote cognitive development while counseling women. Knefelkamp et al. Those at lower levels of ego development showed modest changes at best. Formal procedures for assessing development along these domains include interview formats such as the ones used by Gilligan and At- tanucci to explore the various considerations a person presents in discussing moral problems.
In- terviews that include questions related to personal constructions of the conflicts and choices related to dual career women, and to the meanings attached to words like responsibility, obligation, fair, selfish and caring as related to career decision making, will give indications of the developmental framework being employed.
Harmon recommended that career counselors assess the de- velopmental status of their women clients, emphasizing basic prob- lems of self-definition and motivation before providing testing and ca- reer education information.
Ac- cording to McAuliffe and Strand , combining formal methods of assessment with interviews as described above can provide a basis for advising and counseling associated with career choices. Barbara Morgan and Victoria Foster An Integrative Feminist Model for Career Counseling for Reentry Women Christian and Wilson have constructed a feminist career coun- seling model for reentry women that utilizes a three-stage format re- lated to the particular needs of this group of clients.
Stage one is a stabilization stage in which the counselor focuses on helping women to become more aware of their own needs in the context of competing demands and to learn about and value themselves. The purpose of this activity is to assist women in developing a more stable, confident frame of reference for career decision making. Stage two is a personal growth stage characterized by assisting women toward new personal and pro- fessional awareness and openness to change, while helping them ex- pand options for careers and lifestyles.
Stage three is an action phase as the woman is assisted in developing the skills necessary to incorporate her new awareness into a more fulfilling combination of multiple roles. The developmental literature includes recommendations for inte- grating methods for promoting psychological development with per- spective taking and skill development.
This approach, when inte- grated with models for promoting cognitive development, can become a viable cognitive developmental model of career counseling. Feedback, application, and integration, as the client practices new be- haviors, accepts new alternatives and options, and tests out new con- cepts, attitudes, and skills in the real world. Moreover, coping skills such as learning to efficiently use time and resources must be emphasized.
Some scope of external change is a prerequisite for cognitive developmental move- ment. Teaching skills such as assertiveness and active listening that contradict sex-role stereo- types of behavior can reduce the power differential across gender, fa- cilitate reflection on issues, and diminish conflict in the family. According to McAuliffe , a developmental approach informs both the direction and the content of the counseling process.
The blending of these two models into a format for working with reentry dual career women basically involves matching the client in the be- ginning stages of counseling at her present level of cognitive function- ing, both in complexity of meaning making and in the content of the personal and professional issues being addressed. Gradually, the counselor would introduce a constructive mismatch by challenging the client at a slightly higher level of cognitive complexity to promote movement to higher, more effective stages of cognitive development.
This process can only occur with adequate levels of support from the counselor throughout the process by providing a holding environment that enables the client, through guided reflection, to deal with the growth producing disequilibrium generated by her new role and the transition to higher stages.
For example, the counselor might encour- age a client returning to work to consider any benefits to her and her family that might accompany her new career, while also confirming the struggle she may have as she ventures outside the inclusion and connectedness of her family and community into the institutional cul- ture of a formal job.
Step One Support. Involvement Stabilization Step Two Challenge. Conclusion The purpose of counseling within a cognitive developmental frame- work is to foster movement along the developmental hierarchy Hayes, ; Knefelkamp et al. The model outlined above enables the counselor to adequately meet the reentry dual career woman at her present level of cognitive functioning, and to assist her in creating new meaning-making frameworks related to the career choices and experiences.
The model also provides a guideline for moving the client toward thinking more complexly about herself and her experiences within the multiple roles she must undertake.
These experiences take place in the context of numerous internal and external influences as- sociated with gender bias and sex role socialization. With adequate levels of challenge, reflection, and support provided through the cre- ation of a holding environment in the career counseling setting, the client can move toward higher levels of cognitive complexity, which will hopefully enable her to generate more effective coping skills and a more differentiated view of herself as she makes important deci- sions about her life congruent with her potential and her identity.
As advocated by Worell and Remer , intrinsic in this approach is the facilitation of agency and self empowerment, such that reentry dual career women will be able to challenge past, present, and antici- pated barriers to career success. References Blocher, D. Developmental counseling revisited. Counseling and Human Devel- opment, 13 4 , 1—7. Blocher, D. Toward a cognitive developmental theory of leisure and work. Counseling Psychologist, 9 3 , 33— Bromet, E.
Spillover between work and family: A study of blue-collar working wives. Gore Eds. New York: Plenum Press. Bruch, M. Conceptual complexity as a media- tor of thought and negative affect: Implications for cognitive restructuring interven- tions.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29 4 , — Christian, C. Reentry women and feminist therapy: A career coun- seling model. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26 6 , — Motherhood issues in the psychotherapy of employed mothers. Psychiatric Annals, 23 8 , — DiNuzzo, T.
Promoting the personal growth and vocational matu- rity of the re-entry woman: A group approach. Duckett, L. Education for ethical nursing practice.
Narvaez Eds. Hill- sdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Facione, N. Role overload and health: The married mother in the waged labor force. Health Care for Women International, 15, — Frone, M. Relationship of work and family stressors to psychological distress: The independent moderating influence of social support, mastery, active coping, and self-focused attention.
Perrewe Ed. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, — Gilligan, C. In a different voice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Two moral orientations: Gender differences and similarities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34 3 , — Harmon, L. The guidance needs of Women. Information Series No. Ohio State University, Columbus. National Center for Research in Vocational Education. ED Hayes, R. The legacy of Lawrence Kohlberg: Implications for counseling and human development.
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